Visions of Type
the type of man with the best words
This section celebrates the words of William Shakespeare.
If you love letters in just the right combination, these pages, the art is for you. If you like to delve into the words yourself, use my plain-text annotated version of all his plays.
The posters are available for purchase.
contents
Here I've made all of 37 Shakespeare's plays available in a single plain-text file. Each spoken line and annotation (e.g. start of scene, character exit, etc) are provided on separate and indexed lines.
I am grateful to Liam Larsen's Kaggle project, which was the only plain-text easily parsable version of Shakespeare that I've been able to find. Liam's file didn't include Henry IV Part 2, which I've added to my file as parsed from the Shakespeare pages at MIT.
My format is different than Liam's. I provide more information about what the line represents and annotate some lines with flags to indicate start/end of a segment, such as scene, act, or a character's appearance.
If you spot any errors or inconsistencies in the file, please let me know.
Here's a snippet of the first and last records from A Comedy of Errors. The field delimiter is a pipe "|".
A_Comedy_of_Errors | play_start | 1966 A_Comedy_of_Errors | act_start | 274 | 1 A_Comedy_of_Errors | scene_start | 1026 | 1 | 1 | A hall in DUKE SOLINUS'S palace. A_Comedy_of_Errors | enter | 1 | 1 | DUKE SOLINUS, AEGEON, Gaoler, Officers, and other Attendants A_Comedy_of_Errors | line | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | AEGEON | +a,+ca,+cp,+cs,+p,+s | Proceed, Solinu s, to procure my fall A_Comedy_of_Errors | line | 1 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 2 | AEGEON | | And by the doom of death end woes a nd all. A_Comedy_of_Errors | line | 1 | 1 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 1 | 1 | 1 | DUKE_SOLINUS | +ca,+cp,+cs | Merchant of Syracu se, plead no more; A_Comedy_of_Errors | line | 1 | 1 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 1 | 2 | 2 | DUKE_SOLINUS | | I am not partial to infringe our laws: ... A_Comedy_of_Errors | line | 5 | 1 | 453 | 1963 | 453 | 1023 | 99 | 1 | 314 | DROMIO_OF_SYRACUSE | -ca,-cp,-cs | We'll draw cuts for the senior: till then lead thou first. A_Comedy_of_Errors | line | 5 | 1 | 454 | 1964 | 454 | 1024 | 63 | 1 | 185 | DROMIO_OF_EPHESUS | | Nay, then, thus: A_Comedy_of_Errors | line | 5 | 1 | 455 | 1965 | 455 | 1025 | 63 | 2 | 186 | DROMIO_OF_EPHESUS | | We came into the world like brother and brother; A_Comedy_of_Errors | line | 5 | 1 | 456 | 1966 | 456 | 1026 | 63 | 3 | 187 | DROMIO_OF_EPHESUS | -a,-ca,-cp,-cs,-p,-s | And now let's go hand in hand, not one before another. A_Comedy_of_Errors | exeunt | 5 | 1 | all ...
Every line has the format
play_name | record_type | ...
where record_type is one of
play_start - start of the play
act_start - start of an act
scene_start - start of a scene
prologue - start of prologue
enter - a character enters
exit - character or characters exit
exeunt - character or characters exit
line - spoken line
misc - action, emote, death, alarm, or other non-spoken event
The exit and exeunt labels are interchangeable. Although strictly exit is singular and exeunt is plural, there are exit lines in which multiple characters leave. The misc may correspond to an entrance, re-entrance or exit.
Depending on the record_type the line has different number of fields.
# * indicates the field may be blank (e.g. speaker)
play_start | spoken_lines_in_play
act_start | spoken_lines_in_act | act_number
scene_start | spoken_lines_in_scene | act_number | scene_number | scene_description
prologue | act_number | 0
enter | act | scene | speaker* | description
exit | act | scene | speaker* | description
exeunt | act | scene | speaker* | description
line | act | scene | line_in_play | line_in_act | line_in_scene |
speaker_appearance | line_in_speaker_appearance | speaker_line |
flag* | line_text
misc | act | scene | speaker* | description
All counts start at 1, except the prologue scene number which is 0.
Only spoken lines count towards the line count.
Every speaker has three line counters. speaker_appearance gives the index of the speaker's appearance (contiguous set of lines). line_in_speaker_appearance counts the lines within a speaker's appearance (contiguous set of lines). speaker_line counts the total lines spoken by the speaker across the play. For example, at the start of the Comedy of Errors
# Aegeon's first apperance of 2 lines (running total for Aegeon: 2 lines)
... 1 | 1 | 1 | AEGEON | +a,+ca,+cp,+cs,+p,+s | Proceed, Solinus, to procure my fall
... 1 | 2 | 2 | AEGEON | | And by the doom of death end woes and all.
# Duke Solinus's first apperance of 23 lines (running total for Duke Solinus: 23 lines)
... 1 | 1 | 1 | DUKE_SOLINUS | +ca,+cp,+cs | Merchant of Syracuse, plead no more;
... 1 | 2 | 2 | DUKE_SOLINUS | | I am not partial to infringe our laws:
... 1 | 3 | 3 | DUKE_SOLINUS | | The enmity and discord which of late
...
... 1 | 21 | 21 | DUKE_SOLINUS | | Thy substance, valued at the highest rate,
... 1 | 22 | 22 | DUKE_SOLINUS | | Cannot amount unto a hundred marks;
... 1 | 23 | 23 | DUKE_SOLINUS | | Therefore by law thou art condemned to die.
# Aegeon's second appearance of 2 lines (running total for Aegeon: 4 lines)
... 2 | 1 | 3 | AEGEON | | Yet this my comfort: when your words are done,
... 2 | 2 | 4 | AEGEON | | My woes end likewise with the evening sun.
# Duke Solinus's second apperance of 3 lines (running total for Duke Solinus: 26 lines)
... 2 | 1 | 24 | DUKE_SOLINUS | | Well, Syracusian, say in brief the cause
... 2 | 2 | 25 | DUKE_SOLINUS | | Why thou departed'st from thy native home
... 2 | 3 | 26 | DUKE_SOLINUS | | And for what cause thou camest to Ephesus.
# Aegeon's third appearance of 65 lines (running total for Aegeon: 69 lines)
... 3 | 1 | 5 | AEGEON | | A heavier task could not have been imposed
... 3 | 2 | 6 | AEGEON | | Than I to speak my griefs unspeakable:
... 3 | 3 | 7 | AEGEON | | Yet, that the world may witness that my end
...
... 3 | 63 | 67 | AEGEON | | Of Corinth that, of Epidaurus this:
... 3 | 64 | 68 | AEGEON | | But ere they came,--O, let me say no more!
... 3 | 65 | 69 | AEGEON | | Gather the sequel by that went before.
# Duke Solinus's third apperance of 2 lines (running total for Duke Solinus: 28 lines)
... 3 | 1 | 27 | DUKE_SOLINUS | | Nay, forward, old man; do not break off so;
... 3 | 2 | 28 | DUKE_SOLINUS | | For we may pity, though not pardon thee.
The flag field is zero or more of
# first line +p in play +a in act +s in scene # last line -p in play -a in act -s in scene # first line of speaker in +cp play +ca act +cs scene # last line of speaker in -cp play -ca act -cs scene
Searching for "-cp" and "death" gives you all the last lines of a given character in the play that said "death".
> grep "\-cp" shakespeare.all.plays.plain.text.txt | grep death A_Winters_Tale | line | 5 | 1 | 242 | 2968 | 242 | 242 | 4 | 6 | 24 | Lord | -ca,-cp,-cs | With divers deaths in death. Antony_and_Cleopatra | line | 4 | 14 | 114 | 2877 | 532 | 114 | 27 | 2 | 47 | EROS | -ca,-cp,-cs | Of Antony's death. As_you_like_it | line | 5 | 4 | 17 | 2477 | 234 | 17 | 24 | 1 | 75 | SILVIUS | +cs,-ca,-cp,-cs | Though to have her and death were both one thing. Coriolanus | line | 5 | 4 | 40 | 3542 | 470 | 40 | 12 | 5 | 38 | Messenger | -ca,-cp,-cs | They'll give him death by inches. Henry_IV,_Part_1 | line | 5 | 3 | 14 | 2776 | 258 | 14 | 11 | 3 | 41 | SIR_WALTER_BLUNT | -ca,-cp,-cs | Lord Stafford's death. Henry_VI_Part_1 | line | 1 | 3 | 85 | 418 | 418 | 85 | 1 | 6 | 6 | Officer | -ca,-cp,-cs | henceforward, upon pain of death. Henry_VI_Part_3 | line | 2 | 2 | 65 | 859 | 274 | 65 | 1 | 3 | 3 | PRINCE | -ca,-cp,-cs | And in that quarrel use it to the death. King_Lear | line | 4 | 6 | 276 | 2874 | 616 | 276 | 38 | 5 | 76 | OSWALD | -ca,-cp,-cs | Upon the British party: O, untimely death! Merchant_of_Venice | line | 5 | 1 | 311 | 2650 | 311 | 311 | 36 | 4 | 84 | NERISSA | -ca,-cp,-cs | After his death, of all he dies possess'd of. Richard_II | line | 4 | 1 | 19 | 1914 | 19 | 19 | 6 | 12 | 22 | BAGOT | -ca,-cp,-cs | In this your cousin's death. Richard_III | line | 4 | 4 | 200 | 2840 | 500 | 200 | 44 | 13 | 142 | DUCHESS_OF_YORK | -ca,-cp,-cs | Shame serves thy life and doth thy death attend. Timon_of_Athens | line | 2 | 2 | 94 | 709 | 132 | 94 | 4 | 2 | 7 | Page | -ca,-cp,-cs | dog's death. Answer not; I am gone. Titus_Andronicus | line | 3 | 1 | 242 | 1281 | 242 | 242 | 1 | 7 | 7 | Messenger | -ca,-cp,-cs | More than remembrance of my father's death.
Searching for "-cp" and sorting by the speaker's line count gives you a ranked list of the most number of spoken lines in a play. Here are the top 10:
grep "\-cp" shakespeare.all.plays.plain.text.txt | sort -nr +20 -21 | head -10 Hamlet | line | 5 | 2 | 374 | 3963 | 681 | 374 | 358 | 7 | 1498 | HAMLET | -ca,-cp,-cs | Which have solicited. The rest is silence. Othello | line | 5 | 2 | 350 | 3483 | 494 | 350 | 272 | 2 | 1099 | IAGO | -ca,-cp,-cs | From this time forth I never will speak word. Henry_V | line | 5 | 2 | 372 | 3216 | 503 | 373 | 147 | 6 | 1029 | KING_HENRY_V | -ca,-cp,-cs | EPILOGUE Othello | line | 5 | 2 | 411 | 3544 | 555 | 411 | 274 | 2 | 887 | OTHELLO | -ca,-cp,-cs | Killing myself, to die upon a kiss. Measure_for_measure | line | 5 | 1 | 578 | 2838 | 578 | 578 | 194 | 16 | 857 | DUKE_VINCENTIO | -a,-ca,-cp,-cs,-p,-s | What's yet behind, that's meet you all should know. Antony_and_Cleopatra | line | 4 | 15 | 70 | 3003 | 658 | 70 | 202 | 9 | 849 | MARK_ANTONY | -ca,-cp,-cs | I can no more. Timon_of_Athens | line | 5 | 1 | 246 | 2361 | 247 | 247 | 207 | 10 | 824 | TIMON | -ca,-cp,-cs | Sun, hide thy beams! Timon hath done his reign. Richard_II | line | 5 | 5 | 113 | 2742 | 507 | 113 | 98 | 8 | 758 | KING_RICHARD_II | -ca,-cp,-cs | Whilst my gross flesh sinks downward, here to die. King_Lear | line | 5 | 3 | 367 | 3480 | 458 | 367 | 187 | 7 | 752 | KING_LEAR | -ca,-cp,-cs | Look there, look there! Julius_Caesar | line | 5 | 5 | 57 | 2566 | 349 | 57 | 194 | 3 | 728 | BRUTUS | -ca,-cp,-cs | I kill'd not thee with half so good a will.
Hamlet has 1,498 lines, almost 50% more than the next character, Othello, who has 1,099.
Who has the longest delivery? To find out just sort on the line_in_speaker_appearance field.
> grep -w line shakespeare.all.plays.plain.text.txt | sort -nr +18 -19 | head -1 Henry_IV,_Part_2 | line | 1 | 2 | 229 | 496 | 455 | 229 | 10 | 139 | 202 | FALSTAFF | | so both the degrees prevent my curses. Boy!
It's Sir John Falstaff in Henry IV Part 2, who delivers 139 consecutive lines in his 10th delivery.
After that, it's King Henry V, who delivers 83 consecutive lines in his 2nd delivery.
> grep -w line shakespeare.all.plays.plain.text.txt | sort -nr +18 -19 | grep -v FALSTAFF | head -1 Henry_IV,_Part_2 | line | 5 | 2 | 146 | 2941 | 227 | 146 | 2 | 83 | 101 | KING_HENRY_V | -ca,-cp,-cs,-s | God shorten Harry's happy life one day!
Hamlet has 358 turns to speak, the most of any character. To find out, sort on the speaker_appearance field.
> grep -w line shakespeare.all.plays.plain.text.txt | sort -nr +16 -17 | head -1 Hamlet | line | 5 | 2 | 374 | 3963 | 681 | 374 | 358 | 7 | 1498 | HAMLET | -ca,-cp,-cs | Which have solicited. The rest is silence.
After Hamlet, it's Othello who has 274 turns to speak.
> grep -w line shakespeare.all.plays.plain.text.txt | sort -nr +16 -17 | grep -v HAMLET | head -1 Othello | line | 5 | 2 | 411 | 3544 | 555 | 411 | 274 | 2 | 887 | OTHELLO | -ca,-cp,-cs | Killing myself, to die upon a kiss.
Let's count up the number of times "death" is mentioned by all characters.
# number of times "death" is spoken by character
> grep -w line shakespeare.all.plays.plain.text.txt | grep -i death | cut -d "|" -f 1,12 | suc | sort -nr | head -15
21 Romeo_and_Juliet | ROMEO
18 Measure_for_measure | DUKE_VINCENTIO
16 Julius_Caesar | BRUTUS
15 Henry_VI_Part_1 | TALBOT
14 Romeo_and_Juliet | FRIAR_LAURENCE
14 Richard_III | GLOUCESTER
13 Hamlet | KING_CLAUDIUS
12 Antony_and_Cleopatra | MARK_ANTONY
10 Richard_II | KING_RICHARD_II
10 Henry_VI_Part_2 | KING_HENRY_VI
10 Hamlet | HAMLET
9 Romeo_and_Juliet | JULIET
9 Measure_for_measure | ISABELLA
8 Richard_III | QUEEN_MARGARET
8 Richard_III | DUCHESS_OF_YORK
Romeo has 21 lines in which he says "death" (any lines with the word appearing twice is counted only once). After that, it's Duke Vincentio with 18 lines and Brutus with 16 lines.
If we just count the number of times "death" is said in a play, then Romeo and Juliet wins with 73 lines with the word. Followed closely by Richard III with 72 mentions.
# number of times "death" appears in a line
> grep -w line shakespeare.all.plays.plain.text.txt | grep -i death | cut -d "|" -f 1 | suc | sort -nr
73 Romeo_and_Juliet
72 Richard_III
63 Henry_VI_Part_2
45 Henry_VI_Part_1
43 Richard_II
42 Measure_for_measure
42 Henry_VI_Part_3
39 Hamlet
35 Antony_and_Cleopatra
34 King_John
31 Julius_Caesar
28 Titus_Andronicus
27 Cymbeline
24 Henry_IV,_Part_2
23 A_Winters_Tale
22 King_Lear
22 Coriolanus
21 Macbeth
21 Henry_IV,_Part_1
18 Pericles
17 Much_Ado_about_nothing
17 Alls_well_that_ends_well
16 Troilus_and_Cressida
15 Othello
15 Henry_V
14 A_Midsummer_nights_dream
12 Merchant_of_Venice
10 Twelfth_Night
10 Henry_VIII
9 A_Comedy_of_Errors
8 Timon_of_Athens
8 Loves_Labours_Lost
7 Two_Gentlemen_of_Verona
7 As_you_like_it
6 The_Tempest
6 Taming_of_the_Shrew
6 Merry_Wives_of_Windsor
Propensity score weighting
The needs of the many outweigh the needs of the few. —Mr. Spock (Star Trek II)
This month, we explore a related and powerful technique to address bias: propensity score weighting (PSW), which applies weights to each subject instead of matching (or discarding) them.
Kurz, C.F., Krzywinski, M. & Altman, N. (2025) Points of significance: Propensity score weighting. Nat. Methods 22:1–3.
Happy 2025 π Day—
TTCAGT: a sequence of digits
Celebrate π Day (March 14th) and sequence digits like its 1999. Let's call some peaks.
Crafting 10 Years of Statistics Explanations: Points of Significance
I don’t have good luck in the match points. —Rafael Nadal, Spanish tennis player
Points of Significance is an ongoing series of short articles about statistics in Nature Methods that started in 2013. Its aim is to provide clear explanations of essential concepts in statistics for a nonspecialist audience. The articles favor heuristic explanations and make extensive use of simulated examples and graphical explanations, while maintaining mathematical rigor.
Topics range from basic, but often misunderstood, such as uncertainty and P-values, to relatively advanced, but often neglected, such as the error-in-variables problem and the curse of dimensionality. More recent articles have focused on timely topics such as modeling of epidemics, machine learning, and neural networks.
In this article, we discuss the evolution of topics and details behind some of the story arcs, our approach to crafting statistical explanations and narratives, and our use of figures and numerical simulations as props for building understanding.
Altman, N. & Krzywinski, M. (2025) Crafting 10 Years of Statistics Explanations: Points of Significance. Annual Review of Statistics and Its Application 12:69–87.
Propensity score matching
I don’t have good luck in the match points. —Rafael Nadal, Spanish tennis player
In many experimental designs, we need to keep in mind the possibility of confounding variables, which may give rise to bias in the estimate of the treatment effect.
If the control and experimental groups aren't matched (or, roughly, similar enough), this bias can arise.
Sometimes this can be dealt with by randomizing, which on average can balance this effect out. When randomization is not possible, propensity score matching is an excellent strategy to match control and experimental groups.
Kurz, C.F., Krzywinski, M. & Altman, N. (2024) Points of significance: Propensity score matching. Nat. Methods 21:1770–1772.
Understanding p-values and significance
P-values combined with estimates of effect size are used to assess the importance of experimental results. However, their interpretation can be invalidated by selection bias when testing multiple hypotheses, fitting multiple models or even informally selecting results that seem interesting after observing the data.
We offer an introduction to principled uses of p-values (targeted at the non-specialist) and identify questionable practices to be avoided.
Altman, N. & Krzywinski, M. (2024) Understanding p-values and significance. Laboratory Animals 58:443–446.