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data visualization + art
The information graphic showing the history of the human genome assembly is part of my series of designs created for the Scientific American Graphic Science page. Together with Senior Graphics Editor Jen Christiansen, we've looked at everything from the evolution of the genomes of SARS-Cov-2 strains to how pets contribute to the bacterial flora in your home.
Most of the art is available for purchase as framed prints and, yes, even pillows. Sleep's never been more important — I take custom requests.

History of the Human Genome Assembly

22 years, 3,117,275,501 bases and 0 gaps later

Round numbers are always false.
— Samuel Johnson

buy artwork Gap size and location in hg38 human genome assembly by Martin Krzywinski
MY DATA + SCIENCE ART ON A WALL | Most of my artwork is available for sale as prints and other items. (buy artwork / see all my art)
buy artwork Year-by-year history of the human genome assembly (5Mb bins) by Martin Krzywinski
MY DATA + SCIENCE ART ON A WALL | Let's talk genomes and what makes us. (buy artwork / see all my art)

1 · History of the human genome assembly — year by year

These are based on the Scientific American Graphic Science illustration, which used 1,000,000 base regions. The mitochondrial chromosome is not shown because it is much smaller (16,569 bases) than a region.

how big are things on the image?

Imperial units
If the poster is printed at 24" × 24" then the scale is 0.24" per 10,000,000 bases and the total length of all chromosomes is 74" or 6.2'.
SI units
If the poster is printed at 50 cm × 50 cm, the scale is 0.49 cm per 10,000,000 bases and the total length of all chromosomes is 154.2 cm or 1.54 m.

1.1 · in 1,000,000 base regions

History of the Human Genome Assembly (22 years, 3,117,275,501 bases and 0 gaps later) -- science + art + data visualization / Martin Krzywinski / Martin Krzywinski @MKrzywinski mkweb.bcgsc.ca buy artwork
THE HISTORY OF THE HUMAN GENOME ASSEMBLY — YEAR BY YEAR | Each chromosome is divided into 1,000,000 base regions, colored to indicate when the region reached 50, 90 or 99%+ completion. Completion from previous years is carried over in grey. Chromosomes 1–22, X and Y are shown. Mitochondrial chromosome is not shown. (BUY ARTWORK)

1.2 · in 250,000 base regions

History of the Human Genome Assembly (22 years, 3,117,275,501 bases and 0 gaps later) -- science + art + data visualization / Martin Krzywinski / Martin Krzywinski @MKrzywinski mkweb.bcgsc.ca buy artwork
THE HISTORY OF THE HUMAN GENOME ASSEMBLY — YEAR BY YEAR | Each chromosome is divided into 250,000 base regions, colored to indicate when the region reached 50, 90 or 99%+ completion. Completion from previous years is carried over in grey. Chromosomes 1–22, X and Y are shown. Mitochondrial chromosome is not shown. (BUY ARTWORK)

1.3 · in 5,000,000 base regions

History of the Human Genome Assembly (22 years, 3,117,275,501 bases and 0 gaps later) -- science + art + data visualization / Martin Krzywinski / Martin Krzywinski @MKrzywinski mkweb.bcgsc.ca buy artwork
THE HISTORY OF THE HUMAN GENOME ASSEMBLY — YEAR BY YEAR | Each chromosome is divided into 5,000,000 base regions, colored to indicate when the region reached 50, 90 or 99%+ completion. Completion from previous years is carried over in grey. Chromosomes 1–22, X and Y are shown. Mitochondrial chromosome is not shown. (BUY ARTWORK)
My SnellenMK font adds lowercase and punctuation to the traditional Snellen design.

2 · History of the human genome assembly — when was it completed?

buy artwork Year-by-year history of the human genome assembly (250kb bins) by Martin Krzywinski
MY DATA + SCIENCE ART ON A WALL | Let's talk genomes and what makes us. (buy artwork / see all my art)

how big are things on the image?

Imperial units
If the poster is printed at 24" × 24" then the scale is 0.41" per 1,000,000 bases and the total length of all chromosomes is 1,272.4" or 106.0'.
SI units
If the poster is printed at 50 cm × 50 cm, the scale is 0.85 cm per 1,000,000 bases and the total length of all chromosomes is 2,650.7 cm or 26.51 m.

2.1 · in 50,000 base regions

History of the Human Genome Assembly (22 years, 3,117,275,501 bases and 0 gaps later) -- science + art + data visualization / Martin Krzywinski / Martin Krzywinski @MKrzywinski mkweb.bcgsc.ca buy artwork
THE HISTORY OF THE HUMAN GENOME ASSEMBLY — WHEN WAS IT COMPLETED? | The human genome is shown chromosome by chromosome (1—22, X, Y), with color representing the assembly version in which each 50,000 base region reached 99%+ completion. The mitochondrial chromosome is not shown. (BUY ARTWORK)

2.2 · in 250,000 base regions

History of the Human Genome Assembly (22 years, 3,117,275,501 bases and 0 gaps later) -- science + art + data visualization / Martin Krzywinski / Martin Krzywinski @MKrzywinski mkweb.bcgsc.ca buy artwork
THE HISTORY OF THE HUMAN GENOME ASSEMBLY — WHEN WAS IT COMPLETED? | The human genome is shown chromosome by chromosome (1—22, X, Y), with color representing the assembly version in which each 250,000 base region reached 99%+ completion. The mitochondrial chromosome is not shown. (BUY ARTWORK)

3 · Structure of the Dec 2013 hg38 human genome assembly

buy artwork Gap size and location in hg38 human genome assembly by Martin Krzywinski
MY DATA + SCIENCE ART ON A WALL | Let's talk genomes and what makes us. (buy artwork / see all my art)

how big are things on the image?

Imperial units
If the poster is printed at 24" × 24" then the scale is 0.28" per 1,000,000 bases and the total length of all chromosomes is 859.1" or 71.6'.
SI units
If the poster is printed at 50 cm × 50 cm, the scale is 0.57 cm per 1,000,000 bases and the total length of all chromosomes is 1,789.8 cm or 17.90 m.
History of the Human Genome Assembly (22 years, 3,117,275,501 bases and 0 gaps later) -- science + art + data visualization / Martin Krzywinski / Martin Krzywinski @MKrzywinski mkweb.bcgsc.ca buy artwork
FILLING IN THE GAPS | Before the March 2022 telomere-to-telomere assembly, the most recent humang enome assembly was from 2013 (hg38). This assembly had 1,001 gaps in chromosomes 1–22, X and Y. This panel shows the size, location and distribution of these gaps. To make small regions visible, those smaller than 230 kb are shown at a fixed size. The mitochondrial chromosome is included in the image and includes a single gap. (BUY ARTWORK)
History of the Human Genome Assembly (22 years, 3,117,275,501 bases and 0 gaps later) -- science + art + data visualization / Martin Krzywinski / Martin Krzywinski @MKrzywinski mkweb.bcgsc.ca buy artwork
FILLING IN THE GAPS | Before the March 2022 telomere-to-telomere assembly, the most recent humang enome assembly was from 2013 (hg38). This assembly had 1,001 gaps in chromosomes 1–22, X and Y. This panel shows the size, location and distribution of these gaps. To make small regions visible, those smaller than 230 kb are shown at a fixed size. The mitochondrial chromosome is included in the image and includes a single gap. (BUY ARTWORK)
See how much you can see with my modern interpretation of the Snellen eye chart. Test yourself with mathematical operators, physical constants, chemical elements and nautical flags. There's even a version for the sightless.
The charts use my SnellenMK optotype font.

4 · Chromosome spirals — sequence length in CHM13v2

buy artwork Chromosome spirals (CHM13v2 human genome assembly) by Martin Krzywinski
MY DATA + SCIENCE ART ON A WALL | Let's talk genomes and what makes us. (buy artwork / see all my art)
buy artwork Chromosome spirals (CHM13v2 human genome assembly) by Martin Krzywinski
MY DATA + SCIENCE ART ON A WALL | Let's talk genomes and what makes us. (buy artwork / see all my art)

These posters are based on a design I made for the 20th anniversary of Canada's Michael Smith Genome Sciences Center, but with chromosome lengths updated to the CHM13v2 (Mar 2022) assembly.

how big are things on the image?

Imperial units
If the poster is printed at 24" × 24" then the scale is 0.46" per 1,000,000 bases and the total length of all spirals is 1,428.3" or 119.0'.
SI units
If the poster is printed at 50 cm × 50 cm, the scale is 0.95 cm per 1,000,000 bases and the total length of all spirals is 2,975.6 cm or 29.76 m.
History of the Human Genome Assembly (22 years, 3,117,275,501 bases and 0 gaps later) -- science + art + data visualization / Martin Krzywinski / Martin Krzywinski @MKrzywinski mkweb.bcgsc.ca buy artwork
Human chromosomes 1–22, X, Y and M are shown as spirals, whose length corresponds to the number of bases (A, T, G, or C) in their sequence in the first gapless telomere-to-telomere assembly of the human genome (CHM13v2, March 2022). (BUY ARTWORK)
History of the Human Genome Assembly (22 years, 3,117,275,501 bases and 0 gaps later) -- science + art + data visualization / Martin Krzywinski / Martin Krzywinski @MKrzywinski mkweb.bcgsc.ca buy artwork
Human chromosomes 1–22, X, Y and M are shown as spirals, whose length corresponds to the number of bases (A, T, G, or C) in their sequence in the first gapless telomere-to-telomere assembly of the human genome (CHM13v2, March 2022). (BUY ARTWORK)
news + thoughts

Nature Biotechnology cover

Thu 23-04-2026

My cover design on the 7 April 2026 Nature Biotechnology issue shows the dendrogram that represents a cluster of uniquely expressed (or downregulated) genes in human naive stem cells induced from such cells. Within each dendrogram block, the genomic barcode sequence (sampled from Supplementary Table 1) is depicted with a Code 39 barcode. The highlighted barcode is one of those used for cell isolation.

Ishiguro S. et al. A multi-kingdom genetic barcoding system for precise clone isolation (2026) Nature Biotechnology 44:616–629.

Martin Krzywinski @MKrzywinski mkweb.bcgsc.ca
My Nature Biotechnology phylogenetic tree cover (volume 44, issue 4, 7 April 2026). (more)

Browse my gallery of cover designs.

Martin Krzywinski @MKrzywinski mkweb.bcgsc.ca
A catalogue of my journal and magazine cover designs. (more)

Happy 2026 π Day—
Art for the 5%

Fri 13-03-2026

Celebrate π Day (March 14th) and enjoy the art — but only if you're part of the 5%.

Go ahead, see what you can't see.

Martin Krzywinski @MKrzywinski mkweb.bcgsc.ca
2026 π DAY | Art for the 5%. Shown in the style of Ishihara color test plates, the art is visible only to those with colour blindness. (details)

Ishihara's Tests for Colour Deficiency

Sun 08-03-2026

Authentic and accurate images of Ishihara's test plates photographed (and lovingly color-corrected) from the 38-plate Ishihara's Tests for Colour Deficiency.

I also provide the position, size, and color of each circle on each test plate.

Martin Krzywinski @MKrzywinski mkweb.bcgsc.ca
ISHIHARA'S TEST PLATE 6 | This plate is part of the set of transformation plates. If you see 5, you're ok. If you see 2, you're not. (details)
Martin Krzywinski @MKrzywinski mkweb.bcgsc.ca
ISHIHARA'S TEST PLATE 18 | This plate is part of the set of mysterious hidden plates. If you don't see anything, you're ok. If you see 5, you're not. (details)

Symmetric alternatives to the ordinary least squares regression

Wed 23-07-2025

What immortal hand or eye, could frame thy fearful symmetry? — William Blake, "The Tyger"

This month, we look at symmetric regression, which, unlike simple linear regression, it is reversible — remaining unaltered when the variables are swapped.

Simple linear regression can summarize the linear relationship between two variables `X` and `Y` — for example, when `Y` is considered the response (dependent) and `X` the predictor (independent) variable.

However, there are times when we are not interested (or able) to distinguish between dependent and independent variables — either because they have the same importance or the same role. This is where symmetric regression can help.

Martin Krzywinski @MKrzywinski mkweb.bcgsc.ca
Nature Methods Points of Significance column: Symmetric alternatives to the ordinary least squares regression. Geometry of quantities minimized in OLS and symmetric regression. OLS minimizes `\Sigma e_y^2` in `Y` ~ `X` and `\Sigma e_x^2` `X` ~ `Y`. Pythagorean regression minimizes AB (magenta). Geometric means regression (GMR) minimizes area of ABP (orange). Orthogonal regression (OR) minimizes HP (blue). (read)

Luca Greco, George Luta, Martin Krzywinski & Naomi Altman (2025) Points of significance: Symmetric alternatives to the ordinary least squares regression. Nat. Methods 22:1610–1612.

Beyond Belief Campaign BRCA Art

Wed 11-06-2025

Fuelled by philanthropy, findings into the workings of BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes have led to groundbreaking research and lifesaving innovations to care for families facing cancer.

This set of 100 one-of-a-kind prints explore the structure of these genes. Each artwork is unique — if you put them all together, you get the full sequence of the BRCA1 and BRCA2 proteins.

Martin Krzywinski | contact | Canada's Michael Smith Genome Sciences CentrePHSA
Google whack “vicissitudinal corporealization”
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