data visualization
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History of the Human Genome Assembly
22 years, 3,117,275,501 bases and 0 gaps later
Round numbers are always false.
— Samuel Johnson
1 · History of the human genome assembly — year by year
These are based on the Scientific American Graphic Science illustration, which used 1,000,000 base regions. The mitochondrial chromosome is not shown because it is much smaller (16,569 bases) than a region.
how big are things on the image?
Imperial units
If the poster is printed at 24" × 24" then the scale is 0.24" per 10,000,000 bases and the total length of all chromosomes is 74" or 6.2'.
SI units
If the poster is printed at 50 cm × 50 cm, the scale is 0.49 cm per 10,000,000 bases and the total length of all chromosomes is 154.2 cm or 1.54 m.
1.1 · in 1,000,000 base regions
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▲ THE HISTORY OF THE HUMAN GENOME ASSEMBLY — YEAR BY YEAR | Each chromosome is divided into 1,000,000 base regions, colored to indicate when the region reached 50, 90 or 99%+ completion. Completion from previous years is carried over in grey. Chromosomes 1–22, X and Y are shown. Mitochondrial chromosome is not shown.
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1.2 · in 250,000 base regions
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▲ THE HISTORY OF THE HUMAN GENOME ASSEMBLY — YEAR BY YEAR | Each chromosome is divided into 250,000 base regions, colored to indicate when the region reached 50, 90 or 99%+ completion. Completion from previous years is carried over in grey. Chromosomes 1–22, X and Y are shown. Mitochondrial chromosome is not shown.
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1.3 · in 5,000,000 base regions
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▲ THE HISTORY OF THE HUMAN GENOME ASSEMBLY — YEAR BY YEAR | Each chromosome is divided into 5,000,000 base regions, colored to indicate when the region reached 50, 90 or 99%+ completion. Completion from previous years is carried over in grey. Chromosomes 1–22, X and Y are shown. Mitochondrial chromosome is not shown.
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2 · History of the human genome assembly — when was it completed?
how big are things on the image?
Imperial units
If the poster is printed at 24" × 24" then the scale is 0.41" per 1,000,000 bases and the total length of all chromosomes is 1,272.4" or 106.0'.
SI units
If the poster is printed at 50 cm × 50 cm, the scale is 0.85 cm per 1,000,000 bases and the total length of all chromosomes is 2,650.7 cm or 26.51 m.
2.1 · in 50,000 base regions
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▲ THE HISTORY OF THE HUMAN GENOME ASSEMBLY — WHEN WAS IT COMPLETED? | The human genome is shown chromosome by chromosome (1—22, X, Y), with color representing the assembly version in which each 50,000 base region reached 99%+ completion. The mitochondrial chromosome is not shown.
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2.2 · in 250,000 base regions
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▲ THE HISTORY OF THE HUMAN GENOME ASSEMBLY — WHEN WAS IT COMPLETED? | The human genome is shown chromosome by chromosome (1—22, X, Y), with color representing the assembly version in which each 250,000 base region reached 99%+ completion. The mitochondrial chromosome is not shown.
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3 · Structure of the Dec 2013 hg38 human genome assembly
how big are things on the image?
Imperial units
If the poster is printed at 24" × 24" then the scale is 0.28" per 1,000,000 bases and the total length of all chromosomes is 859.1" or 71.6'.
SI units
If the poster is printed at 50 cm × 50 cm, the scale is 0.57 cm per 1,000,000 bases and the total length of all chromosomes is 1,789.8 cm or 17.90 m.
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▲ FILLING IN THE GAPS | Before the March 2022 telomere-to-telomere assembly, the most recent humang enome assembly was from 2013 (hg38). This assembly had 1,001 gaps in chromosomes 1–22, X and Y. This panel shows the size, location and distribution of these gaps. To make small regions visible, those smaller than 230 kb are shown at a fixed size. The mitochondrial chromosome is included in the image and includes a single gap.
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▲ FILLING IN THE GAPS | Before the March 2022 telomere-to-telomere assembly, the most recent humang enome assembly was from 2013 (hg38). This assembly had 1,001 gaps in chromosomes 1–22, X and Y. This panel shows the size, location and distribution of these gaps. To make small regions visible, those smaller than 230 kb are shown at a fixed size. The mitochondrial chromosome is included in the image and includes a single gap.
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4 · Chromosome spirals — sequence length in CHM13v2
These posters are based on a design I made for the 20th anniversary of Canada's Michael Smith Genome Sciences Center, but with chromosome lengths updated to the
CHM13v2 (Mar 2022) assembly.
how big are things on the image?
Imperial units
If the poster is printed at 24" × 24" then the scale is 0.46" per 1,000,000 bases and the total length of all spirals is 1,428.3" or 119.0'.
SI units
If the poster is printed at 50 cm × 50 cm, the scale is 0.95 cm per 1,000,000 bases and the total length of all spirals is 2,975.6 cm or 29.76 m.
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▲ Human chromosomes 1–22, X, Y and M are shown as spirals, whose length corresponds to the number of bases (A, T, G, or C) in their sequence in the first gapless telomere-to-telomere assembly of the human genome (
CHM13v2, March 2022).
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▲ Human chromosomes 1–22, X, Y and M are shown as spirals, whose length corresponds to the number of bases (A, T, G, or C) in their sequence in the first gapless telomere-to-telomere assembly of the human genome (
CHM13v2, March 2022).
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news
+ thoughts
Thu 23-04-2026
My cover design on the 7 April 2026 Nature Biotechnology issue shows the dendrogram that represents a cluster of uniquely expressed (or downregulated) genes in human naive stem cells induced from such cells. Within each dendrogram block, the genomic barcode sequence (sampled from Supplementary Table 1) is depicted with a Code 39 barcode. The highlighted barcode is one of those used for cell isolation.
Ishiguro S. et al. A multi-kingdom genetic barcoding system for precise clone isolation (2026) Nature Biotechnology 44:616–629.
▲ My Nature Biotechnology phylogenetic tree cover (volume 44, issue 4, 7 April 2026).
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Browse my gallery of cover designs.
▲ A catalogue of my journal and magazine cover designs.
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Fri 13-03-2026
Celebrate π Day (March 14th) and enjoy the art — but only if you're part of the 5%.
Go ahead, see what you can't see.
▲ 2026 π DAY | Art for the 5%. Shown in the style of Ishihara color test plates, the art is visible only to those with colour blindness.
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Wed 23-07-2025
What immortal hand or eye, could frame thy fearful symmetry? — William Blake, "The Tyger"
This month, we look at symmetric regression, which, unlike simple linear regression, it is reversible — remaining unaltered when the variables are swapped.
Simple linear regression can summarize the linear relationship between two variables `X` and `Y` — for example, when `Y` is considered the response (dependent) and `X` the predictor (independent) variable.
However, there are times when we are not interested (or able) to distinguish between dependent and independent variables — either because they have the same importance or the same role. This is where symmetric regression can help.
▲ Nature Methods Points of Significance column: Symmetric alternatives to the ordinary least squares regression. Geometry of quantities minimized in OLS and symmetric regression. OLS minimizes `\Sigma e_y^2` in `Y` ~ `X` and `\Sigma e_x^2` `X` ~ `Y`. Pythagorean regression minimizes AB (magenta). Geometric means regression (GMR) minimizes area of ABP (orange). Orthogonal regression (OR) minimizes HP (blue).
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Luca Greco, George Luta, Martin Krzywinski & Naomi Altman (2025) Points of significance: Symmetric alternatives to the ordinary least squares regression. Nat. Methods 22:1610–1612.
Wed 11-06-2025
Fuelled by philanthropy, findings into the workings of BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes have led to groundbreaking research and lifesaving innovations to care for families facing cancer.
This set of 100 one-of-a-kind prints explore the structure of these genes. Each artwork is unique — if you put them all together, you get the full sequence of the BRCA1 and BRCA2 proteins.